 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
Sains Malaysiana 47(10)(2018): 2543–2556
http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2018-4710-31
Challenges in Predicting Risks of Premature Coronary Artery Disease (Pcad) (Cabaran dalam Meramal Risiko Penyakit Arteri Koronari Pramatang
(Pcad)) MUHAMMAD
FAIZAN
A.
SHUKOR1,2*, NOOR AKMAL
SHAREELA
ISMAIL1
& WAN ZURINAH WAN
NGAH1 1Department of Biochemistry,
Faculty of Medicine, UKM Medical Centre, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia, Jalan Ya’acob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 50300 Kuala
Lumpur, Federal Territory, Malaysia 2Centre for Chemical
Defense, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem
Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory, Malaysia Diserahkan: 21 Mei
2018 /Diterima: 25 Jun 2018 ABSTRACT Coronary artery disease
(CAD) predominantly manifests in older population above the
age of 60 years old. The incidence of CAD in
younger individuals has been reported and is called premature
CAD (pCAD).
The prevalence for pCAD in individuals below 45 years old
is about 3-10% worldwide. Advances in risk prediction are of
great importance as absolute values of risk factors sometimes
correlate poorly with individuals. The measurement of traditional
risk factors such as cholesterol level and blood pressure might
be inadequate to predict risk for pCAD and
therefore new biomarkers are required. The introduction of omics
technology offers insight into the mechanism and interactions
involved during disease progression and open the possibilities
of discovering new biomarkers. Currently, new potential biomarkers
for pCAD have been explored such as
homocysteine, apolipoproteins, microRNAs and single nucleotide polymorphisms.
In this review, we discussed the associated risk factors for
pCAD,
several reported and newly proposed biomarkers and their potential
to be used clinically. Keywords: Atherosclerosis;
biomarker; premature coronary artery disease ABSTRAK Penyakit
arteri koronari (CAD) sering berlaku dalam populasi yang
berumur 60 tahun ke atas. Walau bagaimanapun, kejadian dalam individu muda yang dipanggil CAD
pramatang (pCAD) telah dilaporkan. Prevalens
pCAD
bagi individu di bawah umur 45 tahun adalah 3-10%
di seluruh dunia. Kemajuan dalam meramal
risiko adalah penting kerana nilai faktor risiko mutlak kadangkala
berkorelasi lemah dengan individu. Pengukuran faktor
risiko tradisi seperti paras kolesterol
dan tekanan darah mungkin tidak mencukupi untuk meramal risiko
pCAD,
oleh itu penanda biologi baru diperlukan. Pengenalan
teknologi omik memberikan lebih kefahaman terhadap mekanisme
dan interaksi yang berlaku sewaktu perkembangan penyakit dan
membuka kemungkinan untuk penemuan penanda biologi baru.
Ketika ini, penanda biologi pCAD
yang baru telah diteroka seperti homosisteina,
apolipoprotein, mikroRNA dan
polimorfisma nukleotida tunggal. Dalam
ulasan ini, kami membincangkan tentang faktor risiko pCAD yang
berkaitan, beberapa penanda biologi yang dilaporkan dan yang
baru dicadangkan dan potensi mereka untuk digunakan secara klinikal.
Kata kunci: Aterosklerosis; penanda biologi; penyakit koronari arteri
pramatang RUJUKAN Abdel-Aziz, T.A. & Mohamed, R.H. 2013a. Association of endothelial nitric oxide synthase
gene polymorphisms with classical risk factors in development
of premature coronary artery disease. Molecular Biology
Reports 40(4): 3065-3071. Abdel-Aziz, T.A. & Mohamed, R.H. 2013b. Human C-reactive protein gene polymorphism and metabolic syndrome
are associated with premature coronary artery disease. Gene
532(2): 216-221. Ahmad, W.A., Ali, R.M., Khanom, M., Han, C.K., Bang, L.H., Yip, A.F.,
Ghazi, A.M., Ismail, O., Zambahari, R. & Hian, S.K. 2013. The journey of Malaysian Ncvd-Pci (National Cardiovascular Disease
Database-Percutaneous Coronary Intervention) Registry: A Summary
of three years report. Int. J. Cardiol. 165(1): 161-164.
Ai, J., Zhang, R., Li, Y., Pu, J., Lu, Y., Jiao, J., Li, K., Bo,
Yu., Li, Z., Wang, R., Wang, L., Li, Q., Wang, N., Shan, H.,
Li, Z. & Yang, B. 2010. Circulating microRNA-1
as a potential novel biomarker for acute myocardial infarction.
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 391(1):
73-77. Albert, C.M., Cook, N.R., Gaziano, J.M., Zaharris, E., Macfadyen,
J., Danielson, E., Buring, J.E. & Manson, J.E. 2008. Effect of folic acid and b vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events
and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular
disease: A randomized trial. JAMA 299(17): 2027-2036.
Armitage, J.M., Bowman, L., Clarke, R.J., Wallendszus, K., Bulbulia,
R., Rahimi, K., Haynes, R., Parish, S., Sleight, P., Peto, R.
& Collins, R. 2010. Effects of homocysteine-lowering
with folic acid plus vitamin b12 vs placebo on mortality and
major morbidity in myocardial infarction survivors: A randomized
trial. JAMA 303(24): 2486-2494. Arzamendi, D., Benito, B., Tizon-Marcos, H., Flores, J., Tanguay,
J.F., Ly, H., Doucet, S., Leduc, L., Leung, T.K., Campuzano,
O., Iglesias, A., Talajic, M. & Brugada, R. 2011. Increase
in sudden death from coronary artery disease in young adults.
Am. Heart J. 161(3): 574-580. Ayyobi, A.F., Zambon, A. & Brunzell, J.D. 2007. Premature coronary artery disease and apolipoprotein
b and apolipoprotein a-i. International Congress Series
1303: 85-94. Azizi, F., Rahmani, M., Raiszadeh, F., Solati, M. & Navab, M.
2002. Association of lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins
and paraoxonase enzyme activity with premature coronary artery
disease. Coron. Artery
Dis. 13(1): 9-16. Bostjancic, E., Zidar, N., Stajner, D. & Glavac, D. 2010. MicroRNA miR-1 is up-regulated in remote myocardium in patients
with myocardial infarction. Folia biologica 56(1): 27-31.
Brown, B.D., Nsengimana, J., Barrett, J.H., Lawrence, R.A., Steiner,
L., Cheng, S., Bishop, D.T., Samani, N.J., Ball, S.G., Balmforth,
A.J. & Hall, A.S. 2010. An evaluation of inflammatory
gene polymorphisms in sibships discordant for premature coronary
artery disease: The grace-immune study. BMC Med. 8: 5.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-5. Castelli, W.P. 1996. Lipids, risk factors and ischaemic heart disease.
Atherosclerosis 124: S1-S9. Che, J., Li, G., Shao, Y., Niu, H. & Shi, Y. 2013. An analysis of the risk factors for premature coronary artery disease
in young and middle-age chinese patients
with hypertension. Exp. Clin. Cardiol.
18(2): 89-92.2444 Choi, J., Daskalopoulou, S.S., Thanassoulis, G., Karp, I., Pelletier,
R., Behlouli, H., Pilote, L. & Investigators, G.P. 2014. Sex- and gender-related risk factor burden in
patients with premature acute coronary syndrome. Can.
J. Cardiol. 30(1): 109-117. Christus, T., Shukkur, A.M., Rashdan, I., Koshy, T., Alanbaei, M.,
Zubaid, M., Hayat, N. & Alsayegh, A. 2011. Coronary
artery disease in patients aged 35 or less - A different beast?
Heart Views 12(1): 7-11. Collet, J.P., Allali, Y., Lesty, C., Tanguy, M.L., Silvain, J., Ankri,
A., Blanchet, B., Dumaine, R., Gianetti, J., Payot, L., Weisel,
J.W. & Montalescot, G. 2006. Altered fibrin architecture
is associated with hypofibrinolysis and premature coronary atherothrombosis.
Arterioscler. Thromb.
Vasc. Biol. 26(11): 2567-2573.
Cordes, K.R. & Srivastava, D. 2009. Microrna regulation of cardiovascular development.
Circ. Res. 04(6): 724-732. Cunningham, K.S. & Gotlieb, A.I. 2005. The role of shear stress in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis. Lab. Invest. 85(1): 9-23.
De Rosa, S., Curcio, A. & Indolfi, C. 2014. Emerging role of micrornas in cardiovascular diseases.
Circ. J. 78(3): 567-575. Demircan, S., Yazici, M., Durna, K., Kilicaslan, F., Demir, S., Pinar,
M. & Gulel, O. 2009. The importance of
gamma-glutamyltransferase activity in patients with coronary
artery disease. Clin.
Cardiol. 32(4): 220-225. Derkacz, A., Protasiewicz, M., Poreba, R., Doroszko, A., Poreba,
M., Antonowicz-Juchniewicz, J., Andrzejak, R. & Szuba, A.
2011. Plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine predicts restenosis after coronary
angioplasty. Arch. Med. Sci. 7(3): 444-448. Dey, S., Flather, M.D., Devlin, G., Brieger, D., Gurfinkel, E.P.,
Steg, P.G., Fitzgerald, G., Jackson, E.A., Eagle, K.A. &
Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events, I. 2009. Sex-related differences
in the presentation, treatment and outcomes among patients with
acute coronary syndromes: The global registry of acute coronary
events. Heart 95(1): 20-26. Dobrovolskienė, R., Mockevičienė, G., Urbonaitė,
B., Jurgevičienė, N., Preikša, R.T. & Ostrauskas,
R. 2013. The risk of early cardiovascular disease
in lithuanian diabetic children and
adolescents: A type 1 diabetes register database based study.
Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 100(1): 119-125.
Eftychiou, C., Antoniades, L., Makri, L., Koumas, L., Costeas, P.A.,
Kyriakou, E., Nicolaides, E. & Papadogiannis, D. 2012. Homocysteine levels and mthfr polymorphisms in young patients with
acute myocardial infarction: A case control study. Hellenic
J. Cardiol. 53(3): 189-194. Egiziano, G., Akhtari, S., Pilote, L., Daskalopoulou, S.S. &
Investigators, G. 2013. Sex differences
in young patients with acute myocardial infarction. Diabet. Med. 30(3): e108-e114. Emdin, M., Pompella, A. & Paolicchi, A. 2005. Gamma-glutamyltransferase, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease:
Triggering oxidative stress within the plaque. Circulation
112(14): 2078-2080. Ernst, E. 1993. Regular exercise reduces
fibrinogen levels: A review of longitudinal studies. Br.
J. Sports. Med. 27(3): 175-176. Faraci, F.M. 2003. Hyperhomocysteinemia: A million ways to lose control.
Arterioscler. Thromb.
Vasc. Biol. 23(3): 371-373. Folsom, A.R., Qamhieh, H.T., Flack, J.M., Hilner, J.E., Liu, K.,
Howard, B.V. & Tracy, R.P. 1993. Plasma
fibrinogen: Levels and correlates in young adults. The
coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study.
Am. J. Epidemiol. 138(12): 1023-1036. Foody, J.M., Milberg, J.A., Robinson, K., Pearce, G.L., Jacobsen,
D.W. & Sprecher, D.L. 2000. Homocysteine and lipoprotein(a) interact to increase cad risk in young men and
women. Arterioscler. Thromb.
Vasc. Biol. 20(2): 493-499. Fraser, A., Harris, R., Sattar, N., Ebrahim, S., Smith, G.D. &
Lawlor, D.A. 2007. Gamma-glutamyltransferase
is associated with incident vascular events independently of
alcohol intake: Analysis of the british
women’s heart and health study and meta-analysis. Arterioscler.
Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27(12): 2729-2735.
Freedman, J.E., Ercan, B., Morin, K.M., Liu, C.T., Tamer, L., Ayaz,
L., Kanadasi, M., Cicek, D., Seyhan, A.I., Akilli, R.E., Camci,
C., Cengiz, B., Oztuzcu, S. & Tanriverdil Kahraman. 2012. The distribution of circulating microRNA and their relation
to coronary disease. F1000 Research 1: 50. Gad, M.Z., Hassanein, S.I., Abdel-Maksoud, S.M., Shaban, G.M., Abou-Aisha,
K. & Elgabarty, H.A. 2010. Assessment of serum levels of
asymmetric dimethylarginine, symmetric dimethylarginine and
l-arginine in coronary artery disease. Biomarkers 15(8):
746-752. Ghazouani, L., Abboud, N., Ben Hadj Khalifa, S., Added, F., Ben Khalfallah,
A., Nsiri, B., Mediouni, M. & Mahjoub, T. 2011. -174g>c interleukin-6 gene polymorphism in tunisian
patients with coronary artery disease. Ann. Saudi Med. 31(1):
40-44. Goff, D.C., Jr., Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Bennett, G., Coady, S., D’agostino,
R.B., Gibbons, R., Greenland, P., Lackland, D.T., Levy, D.,
O’donnell, C.J., Robinson, J.G., Schwartz, J.S., Shero, S.T.,
Smith, S.C., Jr., Sorlie, P., Stone, N.J., Wilson, P.W., Jordan,
H.S., Nevo, L., Wnek, J., Anderson, J.L., Halperin, J.L., Albert,
N.M., Bozkurt, B., Brindis, R.G., Curtis, L.H., Demets, D.,
Hochman, J.S., Kovacs, R.J., Ohman, E.M., Pressler, S.J., Sellke,
F.W., Shen, W.K., Smith, S.C., Jr., Tomaselli, G.F. & American
College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force
on Practice, G. 2014. 2013 acc/aha guideline on the assessment
of cardiovascular risk: A report of the american
college of cardiology/american heart association task force
on practice guidelines. Circulation 129: S49-S73. Graham, I.M., Daly, L.E., Refsum, H.M., Robinson, K., Brattstrom,
L.E., Ueland, P.M., Palma-Reis, R.J., Boers, G.H., Sheahan,
R.G., Israelsson, B., Uiterwaal, C.S., Meleady, R., Mcmaster,
D., Verhoef, P., Witteman, J., Rubba, P., Bellet, H., Wautrecht,
J.C., De Valk, H.W., Sales Luis, A.C., Parrot- Rouland, F.M.,
Tan, K.S., Higgins, I., Garcon, D. & Andria, G. 1997. Plasma
homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. The
European concerted action project. JAMA 277(22):
1775-1781. Gupta, S.K., Kotwal, J., Kotwal, A., Dhall, A. & Garg, S. 2012.
Role of homocysteine & mthfr c677t gene polymorphism as
risk factors for coronary artery disease in young indians.
Indian J. Med. Res.135(4):
506-512. Hagiwara, S., Kantharidis, P. & Cooper, M.E. 2014. Microrna as biomarkers and regulator of cardiovascular
development and disease. Curr.
Pharm. Des. 20(14): 2347-2370. Hbejan, K. 2011. Smoking effect on ischemic heart
disease in young patients. Heart Views 12(1):
1-6. Heiskanen, M., Kahonen, M., Hurme, M., Lehtimaki, T., Mononen, N.,
Juonala, M., Hutri-Kahonen, N., Viikari, J., Raitakari, O. &
Hulkkonen, J. 2010. Polymorphism in the il10 promoter region and early markers of atherosclerosis:
The cardiovascular risk in young finns
study. Atherosclerosis 208(1): 190-196. Herrick, S., Blanc-Brude, O., Gray, A. & Laurent, G. 1999. Fibrinogen. Int. J. Biochem. Cell.
Biol. 31(7): 741-746. Hoekstra,
M., van der Lans, C.A., Halvorsen,
B., Gullestad, L., Kuiper, J., Aukrust, P., van Berkela, T.J.C.
& Biessenae, E.A.L. 2010. The peripheral blood mononuclear cell microRNA signature of coronary
artery disease. Biochemical and Biophysical Research
Communications 394(3): 792-797. Hozawa, A., Houston, T., Steffes, M.W., Widome, R., Williams, O.D.,
Iribarren, C., Pletcher, M.J., Daviglus, M.L., Carr, J.J. &
Jacobs, D.R., Jr. 2006. The association of cigarette smoking with self-reported disease
before middle age: The coronary artery risk development in young
adults (cardia) study. Prev. Med. 42(3): 193-199. Hunter, K.A., Garlick, P.J., Broom, I., Anderson, S.E. & Mcnurlan,
M.A. 2001. Effects of smoking and abstention from smoking
on fibrinogen synthesis in humans. Clin.
Sci. (Lond) 100(4): 459-465. Karaca, E., Kayikcioglu, M., Onay, H., Gunduz, C. & Ozkinay,
F. 2011. The effect of interleukin-10 gene promoter polymorphisms
on early-onset coronary artery disease. Anadolu Kardiyol.
Derg. 11(4): 285-289. Kathiresan,
S., Melander, O., Anevski, D., Guiducci, C., Burtt, N.P., Roos,
C., Hirschhorn, J.N., Berglund, G., Hedblad, B., Groop, L.,
Altshuler, D.M., Newton-Cheh, C. & Orho-Melander, M. 2008.
Polymorphisms associated with cholesterol and risk of cardiovascular
events. N. Engl. J. Med. 358(12): 1240-1249. Kaul, S., Zadeh, A.A. & Shah, P.K. 2006. Homocysteine
hypothesis for atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease: Not
validated. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 48(5): 914-923. Kunjathoor,
V.V., Febbraio, M., Podrez, E.A., Moore, K.J., Andersson, L.,
Koehn, S., Rhee, J.S., Silverstein, R., Hoff, H.F. & Freeman,
M.W. 2002. Scavenger receptors class a-i/ii and cd36 are the
principal receptors responsible for the uptake of modified low
density lipoprotein leading to lipid loading in macrophages.
J. Biol. Chem. 277(51): 49982-49988. Kwiterovich, P.O., Jr., Coresh, J., Smith, H.H., Bachorik, P.S.,
Derby, C.A. & Pearson, T.A. 1992. Comparison of the plasma
levels of apolipoproteins b and a-1,
and other risk factors in men and women with premature coronary
artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 69(12): 1015-1021. Lansky, A.J.,
Ng, V.G., Maehara, A., Weisz, G., Lerman, A., Mintz, G.S., De
Bruyne, B., Farhat, N., Niess, G., Jankovic, I., Lazar, D.,
Xu, K., Fahy, M., Serruys, P.W. & Stone, G.W. 2012. Gender
and the extent of coronary atherosclerosis, plaque composition,
and clinical outcomes in acute coronary syndromes. JACC
Cardiovasc. Imaging 5(3): S62-S72.
Lee, D.H., Jacobs, D.R., Jr., Gross, M., Kiefe, C.I., Roseman, J.,
Lewis, C.E. & Steffes, M. 2003. Gamma-glutamyltransferase
is a predictor of incident diabetes and hypertension: The coronary
artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. Clin. Chem. 49(8): 1358-1366. Lee, D.S.,
Evans, J.C., Robins, S.J., Wilson, P.W., Albano, I., Fox, C.S.,
Wang, T.J., Benjamin, E.J., D’agostino, R.B. & Vasan, R.S.
2007. Gamma glutamyl transferase and metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular
disease, and mortality risk: The framingham
heart study. Arterioscler.
Thromb. Vasc.
Biol. 27(1): 127-133. Lee, J.Y.,
Lee, B.S., Shin, D.J., Woo Park, K., Shin, Y.A., Joong Kim,
K., Heo, L., Young Lee, J., Kyoung Kim, Y., Jin Kim, Y., Bum
Hong, C., Lee, S.H., Yoon, D., Jung Ku, H., Oh, I.Y., Kim, B.J.,
Lee, J., Park, S.J., Kim, J., Kawk, H.K., Lee, J.E., Park, H.K.,
Lee, J.E., Nam, H.Y., Park, H.Y., Shin, C., Yokota, M., Asano,
H., Nakatochi, M., Matsubara, T., Kitajima, H., Yamamoto, K.,
Kim, H.L., Han, B.G., Cho, M.C., Jang, Y., Kim, H.S., Euy Park,
J. & Lee, J.Y. 2013. A genome-wide association study of
a coronary artery disease risk variant. J. Hum. Genet.
58(3): 120-126. Leiper, J.
& Vallance, P. 1999. Biological significance
of endogenous methylarginines that inhibit nitric oxide synthases.
Cardiovasc. Res. 43(3): 542-548. Li, K., Zhang, T., Fan, H., Li, Q., Ito, W., Torzewski, J., Guo,
J. & Liu, Z. 2014. The analysis of microRNA expression profiling
for coronary artery disease. Cardiology 127(1):
62-69. Libby, P.
2012. Inflammation in atherosclerosis.
Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 32(9): 2045-2051. Lin, J., Kakkar, V. & Lu, X. 2014. Impact of matrix metalloproteinases on atherosclerosis. Curr. Drug Targets 15(4): 442-453. Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Nam, B.H., D’agostino, R.B., Sr., Levy, D., Murabito,
J.M., Wang, T.J., Wilson, P.W. & O’donnell, C.J. 2004. Parental
cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease
in middle-aged adults: A prospective study of parents and offspring.
JAMA 291(18): 2204-2211. Lu, H.Q.,
Liang, C., He, Z.Q., Fan, M. & Wu, Z.G. 2013. Circulating
miR-214 is associated with the severity of coronary artery disease.
Journal of Geriatric Cardiology: JGC. 10(1): 34-38. Lu, H.T. & Nordin, R.B. 2013. Ethnic differences
in the occurrence of acute coronary syndrome: Results of the
Malaysian national cardiovascular disease (ncvd) database registry
(March 2006- February 2010). BMC Cardiovasc. Disord.
13(1): 97. doi: 10.1186/1471-2261-13-97.
Maas, R., Schulze, F., Baumert, J., Lowel, H., Hamraz, K., Schwedhelm,
E., Koenig, W. & Boger, R.H. 2007. Asymmetric
dimethylarginine, smoking, and risk of coronary heart disease
in apparently healthy men: Prospective analysis from the population-based
monitoring of trends and determinants in cardiovascular disease/kooperative
gesundheitsforschung in der region augsburg
study and experimental data. Clin.
Chem. 53(4): 693-701. Madamanchi, N.R., Vendrov, A. & Runge, M.S. 2005. Oxidative stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler.
Thromb. Vasc.
Biol. 25(1): 29-38. Mamatha, S.N., Nagaraja, D., Philip, M. & Christopher, R. 2011. Asymmetric dimethylarginine as a risk marker for
early-onset ischemic stroke in Indian population. Clin.
Chim. Acta.
412(1-2): 139-142. Mao, Y., Qi, X., Xu, W., Song, H., Xu, M., Ma, W. & Zhou, L.
2014. Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase: A novel biomarker for coronary
artery disease. Med. Sci. Monit. 20: 706-710. Meinitzer,
A., Kielstein, J.T., Pilz, S., Drechsler, C., Ritz, E., Boehm,
B.O., Winkelmann, B.R. & Marz, W. 2011. Symmetrical and
asymmetrical dimethylarginine as predictors for mortality in
patients referred for coronary angiography: The ludwigshafen risk and cardiovascular health study. Clin. Chem. 57(1): 112-121. Milcent, C., Dormont, B., Durand-Zaleski, I. & Steg, P.G. 2007. Gender differences in hospital mortality and use of percutaneous
coronary intervention in acute myocardial infarction: Microsimulation
analysis of the 1999 nationwide French hospitals database. Circulation
115(7): 833-839. Mills, J.,
Mansfield, M. & Grant, P. 2002. Elevated
fibrinogen in the healthy male relatives of patients with severe,
premature coronary artery disease. Eur. Heart J. 23(16):
1276-1281.2446 Mohan, V., Deepa, R., Rani, S.S., Premalatha, G. & Chennai Urban
Population, S. 2001. Prevalence of coronary artery disease
and its relationship to lipids in a selected population in south
india: The chennai urban population study (cups no. 5). J.
Am. Coll. Cardiol. 38(3): 682-687. Morillas,
P., Bertomeu, V., Pabon, P., Ancillo, P., Bermejo, J., Fernandez,
C., Aros, F. & Investigators, P.I. 2007. Characteristics
and outcome of acute myocardial infarction in young patients.
The priamho ii study. Cardiology
107(4): 217-225. Nakanishi, N., Suzuki, K. & Tatara, K. 2004. Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase and risk of metabolic syndrome and
type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Japanese men. Diabetes
Care 27(6): 1427-1432. Napoli, C., D’armiento, F.P., Mancini, F.P., Postiglione, A., Witztum,
J.L., Palumbo, G. & Palinski, W. 1997. Fatty streak
formation occurs in human fetal aortas and is greatly enhanced
by maternal hypercholesterolemia. Intimal accumulation of low
density lipoprotein and its oxidation precede monocyte recruitment
into early atherosclerotic lesions. J. Clin. Invest. 100(11):
2680-2690. Naya, M., Morita, K., Yoshinaga, K., Manabe, O., Goto, D., Hirata,
K., Katoh, C., Tamaki, N. & Tsutsui, H. 2011. Long-term
smoking causes more advanced coronary endothelial dysfunction
in middle-aged smokers compared to young smokers. Eur. J.
Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 38(3): 491-498. Nichols, M., Townsend, N., Scarborough, P. & Rayner, M. 2014. Cardiovascular
disease in Europe 2014: Epidemiological update. Eur. Heart
J. 35(42): 2950-2959. Niemiec, P., Gorczynska-Kosiorz, S., Iwanicki, T., Krauze, J., Trautsolt,
W., Grzeszczak, W., Bochenek, A. & Zak, I. 2012. The rs10757278
polymorphism of the 9p21.3 locus is associated with premature
coronary artery disease in Polish patients. Genetic Testing
and Molecular Biomarker 16(9): 1080-1085. Niemiec,
P., Nowak, T., Iwanicki, T., Krauze, J., Gorczynska- Kosiorz,
S., Grzeszczak, W., Ochalska-Tyka, A. & Zak, I. 2014. The
-930A>G polymorphism of the CYBA gene is associated with
premature coronary artery disease. A case-control study and
gene-risk factors interactions. Molecular Biology Reports
41(5): 3287-3294. Okwuosa, T.M., Klein, O., Chan, C., Jenny, N.S., Schreiner, P., Green,
D. & Liu, K. 2013. 13-year long-term associations between
changes in traditional cardiovascular risk factors and changes
in fibrinogen levels: The coronary artery risk development in
young adults (cardia) study. Atherosclerosis 226(1):
214-219. Olson, E.N. 2014. Micrornas as therapeutic
targets and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease. Sci.
Transl. Med. 6(239): 239-233. Onat, A.,
Can, G., Ornek, E., Cicek, G., Ayhan, E. & Dogan, Y.
2012. Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase: Independent predictor
of risk of diabetes, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and coronary
disease. Obesity (Silver Spring) 20(4): 842-848. Otaki, Y.,
Gransar, H., Berman, D.S., Cheng, V.Y., Dey, D., Lin, F.Y.,
Achenbach, S., Al-Mallah, M., Budoff, M.J., Cademartiri, F.,
Callister, T.Q., Chang, H.J., Chinnaiyan, K., Chow, B.J., Delago,
A., Hadamitzky, M., Hausleiter, J., Kaufmann, P., Maffei, E.,
Raff, G., Shaw, L.J., Villines, T.C., Dunning, A. & Min,
J.K. 2013. Impact of family history of coronary artery disease
in young individuals (from the confirm registry). Am. J.
Cardiol. 111(8): 1081-1086. Ozaki, K. & Leonard, W.J. 2002. Cytokine
and cytokine receptor pleiotropy and redundancy. J.
Biol. Chem. 277(33): 29355- 29358. Paiva, H., Kahonen, M., Lehtimaki, T., Raitakari, O.T., Jula, A.,
Viikari, J., Alfthan, G., Juonala, M., Laaksonen, R. & Hutri-
Kahonen, N. 2008. Asymmetric dimethylarginine (adma) has a role in regulating systemic
vascular tone in young healthy subjects: The cardiovascular
risk in young finns study. Am. J.
Hypertens. 21(8): 873-878. Peden, J.F. & Farrall, M. 2011. Thirty-five common
variants for coronary artery disease: The fruits of much collaborative
labour. Hum. Mol. Genet. 20(R2): R198-R205. Pineda, J., Marin, F., Roldan, V., Valencia, J., Marco, P. &
Sogorb, F. 2008. Premature myocardial infarction: Clinical profile and angiographic
findings. Int. J. Cardiol. 126(1): 127-129. Phulukdaree,
A., Khan, S., Ramkaran, P., Govender, R., Moodley, D. &
Chuturgoon, A.A. 2013. The interleukin-6 -147 g/c polymorphism
is associated with increased risk of coronary artery disease
in young South African Indian men. Metabolic Syndrome and
Related Disorders 11(3): 205-209. Poon, S., Goodman, S.G., Yan, R.T., Bugiardini, R., Bierman, A.S.,
Eagle, K.A., Johnston, N., Huynh, T., Grondin, F.R., Schenck-Gustafsson,
K. & Yan, A.T. 2012. Bridging the gender gap: Insights from a contemporary
analysis of sex-related differences in the treatment and outcomes
of patients with acute coronary syndromes. Am. Heart.
J. 163(1): 66-73. Prescott, E., Hippe, M., Schnohr, P., Hein, H.O. & Vestbo, J.
1998. Smoking and risk of myocardial infarction in women and men: Longitudinal
population study. BMJ 316(7137): 1043-1047. Radovanovic, D., Erne, P., Urban, P., Bertel, O., Rickli, H., Gaspoz,
J.M. & Investigators, A.P. 2007. Gender differences
in management and outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes:
Results on 20,290 patients from the amis
plus registry. Heart 93(11): 1369-1375. Ray, K.K., Cannon, C.P., Cairns, R., Morrow, D.A., Ridker, P.M. &
Braunwald, E. 2009. Prognostic utility of apob/ai, total cholesterol/hdl,
non-hdl cholesterol, or hs-crp as predictors of clinical risk
in patients receiving statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes:
Results from prove it-timi 22. Arterioscler.
Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 29(3):
424-430. Reibis, R., Treszl, A., Wegscheider, K., Bestehorn, K., Karmann,
B. & Voller, H. 2012. Disparity in risk factor pattern in premature
versus late-onset coronary artery disease: A survey of 15,381
patients. Vasc. Health
Risk Manag.
8: 473-481. Ripatti, S., Tikkanen, E., Orho-Melander, M., Havulinna, A.S., Silander,
K., Sharma, A., Guiducci, C., Perola, M., Jula, A., Sinisalo,
J., Lokki, M.L., Nieminen, M.S., Melander, O., Salomaa, V.,
Peltonen, L. & Kathiresan, S. 2010. A multilocus genetic risk score for coronary heart disease: Case-control
and prospective cohort analyses. Lancet 376(9750): 1393-1400.
Ross, R.
1993. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: A perspective for
the 1990s. Nature 362(6423): 801-809. Ruiz-Garcia,
J., Lerman, A., Weisz, G., Maehara, A., Mintz, G.S., Fahy, M.,
Xu, K., Lansky, A.J., Cristea, E., Farah, T.G., Teles, R., Botker,
H.E., Templin, B., Zhang, Z., De Bruyne, B., Serruys, P.W. &
Stone, G.W. 2012. Age- and gender-related changes in plaque
composition in patients with acute coronary syndrome: The prospect
study. EuroIntervention 8(8): 929-938. Sadeghian, S., Fallahi, F., Salarifar, M., Davoodi, G., Mahmoodian,
M., Fallah, N., Darvish, S., Karimi, A. & Tehran Heart,
C. 2006. Homocysteine,
vitamin b12 and folate levels in 2447 premature coronary artery disease. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 6: 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2261-6-38.
Saito, H., Lund-Katz, S. & Phillips, M.C. 2004. Contributions of domain structure and lipid interaction to the functionality
of exchangeable human apolipoproteins. Prog.
Lipid Res. 43(4): 350-380. Satoh, H., Nishino, T., Tomita, K., Saijo, Y., Kishi, R. & Tsutsui,
H. 2006. Risk factors and the incidence of coronary artery disease in young
middle-aged Japanese men: Results from a 10-year cohort study.
Intern. Med. 45(5): 235-239. Satti, H.S., Hussain, S. & Javed, Q. 2013. Association of interleukin-6 gene promoter polymorphism with coronary
artery disease in Pakistani families. Scientific World
Journal 2013: 538365. Sekuri, C., Cam, F.S., Sagcan, A., Ercan, E., Tengiz, I., Alioglu,
E. & Berdeli, A. 2007. No association of interleukin-6 gene polymorphism
(-174 g/c) with premature coronary artery disease in a turkish cohort. Coron. Artery
Dis. 18(5): 333-337. Sesso, H.D., Lee, I.M., Gaziano, J.M., Rexrode, K.M., Glynn, R.J.
& Buring, J.E. 2001. Maternal and paternal history of myocardial infarction
and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women.
Circulation 104(4): 393-398. Shabbir,
S., Khan, D.A., Khan, F.A., Elahi, M.M. &
Matata, B.M. 2011. Serum gamma glutamyl transferase: A novel
biomarker for screening of premature coronary artery disease.
Cardiovasc. Revasc.
Med. 12(6): 367-374. Shehab, A.,
Al-Dabbagh, B., Alhabib, K.F., Alsheikh-Ali, A.A., Almahmeed,
W., Sulaiman, K., Al-Motarreb, A., Nagelkerke, N., Al Suwaidi,
J., Hersi, A., Al Faleh, H., Asaad, N., Al Saif, S. & Amin,
H. 2013. Gender disparities in the presentation, management
and outcomes of acute coronary syndrome patients: Data from
the 2nd gulf registry of acute coronary events (gulf race-2).
PLoS One 8(2): e55508. Shojaie, M., Pourahmad, M., Eshraghian, A., Izadi, H.R. & Naghshvar,
F. 2009. Fibrinogen as a risk factor for premature myocardial infarction
in iranian patients: A case control
study. Vasc. Health Risk Manag.
5: 673-676. Siegerink,
B., Maas, R., Vossen, C.Y., Schwedhelm, E., Koenig, W., Boger,
R., Rothenbacher, D., Brenner, H. & Breitling, L.P. 2013.
Asymmetric and symmetric dimethylarginine and risk of secondary
cardiovascular disease events and mortality in patients with
stable coronary heart disease: The karola follow-up study. Clin.
Res. Cardiol. 102(3): 193-202. Siemelink, M.A. & Zeller, T. 2014. Biomarkers
of coronary artery disease: The promise of the transcriptome.
Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 16(8):
513. Sondermeijer,
B.M., Bakker, A., Halliani, A., De Ronde, M.W., Marquart, A.A.,
Tijsen, A.J., Mulders, T.A., Kok, M.G., Battjes, S., Maiwald,
S., Sivapalaratnam, S., Trip, M.D., Moerland, P.D., Meijers,
J.C., Creemers, E.E. & Pinto- Sietsma, S.J. 2011. Platelets
in patients with premature coronary artery disease exhibit upregulation
of mirna340* and mirna624*. PLoS One 6(10): e25946. St-Pierre, A.C., Cantin, B., Dagenais, G.R., Mauriege, P., Bernard,
P.M., Despres, J.P. & Lamarche, B. 2005. Low-density
lipoprotein subfractions and the long-term risk of ischemic
heart disease in men: 13-year follow-up data from the quebec
cardiovascular study. Arterioscler.
Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25(3): 553-559.
Sun, X.,
Zhang, M., Sanagawa, A., Mori, C., Ito, S., Iwaki, S., Satoh,
H. & Fujii, S. 2012. Circulating microRNA-126
in patients with coronary artery disease: Correlation with LDL
cholesterol. Thrombosis Journal 10(1): 16. Taraboanta, C., Hague, C.J., Mancini, G.B., Forster, B.B. & Frohlich,
J. 2012. Coronary artery calcium findings in asymptomatic
subjects with family history of premature coronary artery disease.
BMC Cardiovasc. Disord.
12: 53. Tatli, E., Ozcelik, F. & Aktoz, M. 2009. Plasma fibrinogen
level may predict critical coronary artery stenosis in young
adults with myocardial infarction. Cardiol.
J. 16(4): 317-320. Tolstrup, J.S., Hvidtfeldt, U.A., Flachs, E.M., Spiegelman, D., Heitmann,
B.L., Balter, K., Goldbourt, U., Hallmans, G., Knekt, P., Liu,
S., Pereira, M., Stevens, J., Virtamo, J. & Feskanich, D.
2014. Smoking and risk of coronary heart disease in younger, middle-aged,
and older adults. Am. J. Public Health 104(1):
96-102. Uddin, S.N., Siddiqui, N.I., Bagum, F., Malik, F., Rahman, S. &
Ali, M.S. 2004. Coronary artery disease in young adults - angiographic
profile. Mymensingh Med. J. 13(1): 11-15. Wan Ahmad, W.A. & Sim, K.H. 2013. Annual Report of the NCVD-ACS Registry, 2009 & 2010. National Cardiovascular Disease Database, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Wang, F.,
Long, G., Zhao, C., Li, H., Chaugai, S., Wang, Y., Chen, C.
& Wang, D.W. 2013. Plasma microRNA-133a is a new marker
for both acute myocardial infarction and underlying coronary
artery stenosis. Journal of Translational Medicine 11:
222. Watkins, H. & Farrall, M. 2006. Genetic susceptibility
to coronary artery disease: From promise to progress. Nat.
Rev. Genet. 7(3): 163-173. Weber, M., Baker, M.B., Patel, R.S., Quyyumi, A.A., Bao, G. &
Searles, C.D. 2011. Microrna expression profile in cad patients and
the impact of acei/arb. Cardiol.
Res. Pract. 2011: 532915. Weber, M., Mcnicoll, S., Marcil, M., Connelly, P., Lussier-Cacan,
S., Davignon, J., Latour, Y. & Genest, J. Jr. 1997. Metabolic
factors clustering, lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein
b, lipoprotein (a) and apolipoprotein e phenotypes in premature
coronary artery disease in french canadians. Can. J. Cardiol.
13(3): 253-260. Wilkins, J.T., Gidding, S., Liu, K., Ning, H., Polak, J.F. &
Lloyd- Jones, D.M. 2014. Associations between a parental history of premature cardiovascular
disease and coronary artery calcium and carotid intima-media
thickness: The coronary artery risk development in young adults
(cardia) study. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 21(5): 601-607.
Wilson, P.W., D’agostino, R.B., Levy, D., Belanger, A.M., Silbershatz,
H. & Kannel, W.B. 1998. Prediction
of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories.
Circulation 97(18): 1837-1847. Yancey, P.G., Bortnick, A.E., Kellner-Weibel, G., De La Llera-Moya,
M., Phillips, M.C. & Rothblat, G.H. 2003. Importance of different pathways of cellular cholesterol efflux.
Arterioscler. Thromb.
Vasc. Biol. 23(5): 712-719. Yayan, J.
2013. Emerging families of biomarkers for coronary artery disease:
Inflammatory mediators. Vasc.
Health Risk Manag.
9: 435-456. Yunus, A.M.,
Sherina, M., Nor Afiah, M., Rampal,
L. & Tiew, K. 2004. Prevalence of cardiovascular
risk factors in a rural community in mukim Dengkil, Selangor.
Malays. J. Nutr. 10(1):
5-11. Zhu, C., Xiong, Z., Zheng, Z., Chen, Y., Qian, X. & Chen, X.
2013. Association of serum gamma-glutamyltransferase with arterial stiffness
in established coronary artery disease. Angiology 64(1):
15-20.2448 Zieske, A.W., Mcmahan, C.A., Mcgill, H.C., Jr., Homma, S., Takei,
H., Malcom, G.T., Tracy, R.E. & Strong, J.P. 2005. Smoking
is associated with advanced coronary atherosclerosis in youth.
Atherosclerosis 180(1): 87-92. Zieske, A.W., Takei, H., Fallon, K.B. & Strong, J.P. 1999. Smoking and atherosclerosis in youth. Atherosclerosis 144(2):
403-408. *Pengarang untuk surat-menyurat; email: mfaizanshukor@gmail.com
|
|||
|
